Beans, peas, lentils and chickpeas
Pulses and legumes
Familiar, direct sources of protein with a long place in human diets. The UK question is not only how to eat more pulses, but why production here remains limited.
The field guide
Protein sources
Eight routes to protein, examined with the same questions: what goes in, what comes out, and what does the evidence actually say?
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Protein-rich fungi grown by fermentation
Mycoprotein and biomass fermentation
A microorganism is grown as food itself. Mycoprotein is the best-known example of biomass fermentation in British supermarkets.
Specific ingredients made by engineered microbes
Precision fermentation
Microbes can be programmed to produce particular proteins or other ingredients. Safety assessment, scale and energy use all matter.
Animal cells grown as food
Cultivated meat
Cultivated meat grows animal cells in controlled conditions. The UK sandbox supports regulatory learning; it is not itself a market approval.
Insect-derived ingredients for food and feed
Insects
Insects can convert feed into protein, but the species, substrate, processing, cost and intended use make the difference.
Aquatic organisms with varied protein potential
Algae and seaweed
A broad group, not a single ingredient. Nutrition, cultivation methods and the cost of processing vary sharply between species.
Microbes fed on gases and energy
Gas (air) fermentation
Some microbes can use gases such as hydrogen or carbon dioxide as inputs, producing biomass that may become feed or food.
Improving existing animal production fairly
Livestock, done better
A sober protein guide has to examine livestock too: feed, methane, land, local ecology and the products people value.